Graphology

Basic tenets

Graphology is based upon a number of basic assertions:

• The written movement is under the direct influence of the central nervous system. The form of the written movement is modified further by flexibly assembled coordinative structures in the hand, arm, and shoulder, which follow principles of dynamical systems.

• The neurophysiological mechanisms which contribute to the written movement are related to conditions within the central nervous system and vary in accordance with them. The written strokes, therefore, reflect changes in the central nervous system such as development, influence of alcohol, and disease processes, such as Parkinson's Disease.
  
  One must examine the handwriting or drawing movements by considering them as movements organized by the central nervous system and produced under biomechanical and dynamical constraints. Given these considerations, graphologists proceed to evaluate the quality, overall size, regularity, and consistency of the graphic stroke in terms of psychological interpretations. Such interpretations vary according to the graphological theory applied by the analyst. Most schools of thought in graphology concur that one graphological sign can be a component of many different clusters, with each cluster having a different psychological interpretation.

Approaches to graphology

• Integrative Graphology

This is also known as 'fixed signs', 'trait stroke', 'French System'.

The basic theory is that stroke formations relate to personality traits. For example, the letter "t" with the bar crossing above the stem, indicates daydreaming. A crossing at the line indicates distant goals.

• Holistic Graphology

This is commonly, but incorrectly referred to as 'Gestalt Graphology'. Gestalt Graphology was a system of handwriting analysis developed circa 1915, Germany.

In this approach a profile is constructed on the basis of Form, Movement and Space.

• Symbolic Analysis

In this approach, one looks for symbols seen in the handwriting. For example,J ohn Wayne's signature shows a blackened out portion, that represents his lung cancer.

Max Pulver is the best known exponent of this system.

Vocabulary

"Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meaning of those words is different. Except in very rare instances, the technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning are not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition."

Validity

The percieved validity of graphology was significantly diminished in early 2005, when samples of handwriting purportedly taken from Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, at the World Economic Summitt in Davos were analysed and the results were published. Several graphologists have cast doubt on the leadership skills and ability to complete tasks of the writer. It subsequently emerged that the samples were in fact from Bill Gates of Microsoft, one of the world's most successful businessmen.

Going through the published research, Crumbaugh, James C & Stockholm, Emilie (1977) ("Validation of Graphoanalysis by 'Global' or 'Holistic' Method." Perceptual And Motor Skills April 1977, 44(2), 403-410.) stands out as being one of the few studies that supports handwriting analysis.

Far more common are studies such as Ben-Shakar, G., Bar-Hillel, M., Blum, Y., Ben-Abba, E & Flug, A., Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986 (71), 645-653, which indicates that graphology has little or no validity.

The field is rife with practitioners of one approach calling practitioners of the other approach charlatans, frauds, and the like. Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] being one demonstration of what each side resorts to in the courtroom.

Legal considerations

• Privacy

Very often graphologists will state that handwriting analysis in the workplace is legal, and cite one or more of the following cases:
Gilbert v California :388 US 263-267 (1967)
US v Dionisio :410 US 1 (1973) 1973, Lawyers Edition, Second Series 35, 67; 93 SC 774
US v Mara aka Marasovich :410 US 19 (1973)
US v Rosinsky :547 F 2nd 249 ( CA 4th 1977 )

United States v Wade :388 US 218, 221-223 (1967)

They are all related to obtaining samples for comparison with documents, sound recordings etc and used to determine whether the individual who provided the sample, is the same person as created the evidence that they have.

Nothing to do with permission to do a psychological analysis is even implied.

• Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Many graphologists will claim that handwriting analysis is non-discriminatory, since it cannot determine Gender, Age, Ethnicity, or other EEOC Protected Classes. Thus far, there have been no studies demonstrating that the use of handwriting analysis in employment does not have a disparate impact upon EEOC protected classes.

There have been a number of studies on gender and handwriting, since Binet(1898). Uniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level.

• Americans with Disbilities Act

One of the rules of thumb in human resources is that if an individual who has an ADA-defined disability cannot take a test, then nobody can. As a result, tests that cannot be adapted for use by those individuals will not be used by a company.

Handwriting analysis clearly falls into the group of tests that cannot be adapted to be administered to individuals who fall within one or more ADA-defined disabilities.

Applications of graphology

The most common applications of graphology are:

Employment profiling

A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure (Lighton, R E A Graphological Examination of the Handwriting of Air Pilots Thesis in the Faculty of Arts: University of Pretoria: 1934) to guarded success (Luca, E S "Major Aptitudes and Personality Chracteristics of 42 Dental Students as Evaluated Through their Handwriting." New York Journal of Dentistry 1973, 43, 281 - 283).

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical ground (Daryl Koehn "Handwriting Analysis In Pre-Employment Screening" The Online Journal of Ethics Vol. 1 * No. 1 * Article 1) and on legal grounds (Julie Spohn "The Legal Implications of Graphology" Washington University Law Quarterly Vol. 73 * No. 3 * Fall 1997).

Business compatibility

This is an additional service offered by some handwriting analysts. The focus of these reports can be one, or more of the following:

• Company-wide

This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the company.

• The average company employee

For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire company are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with focus being how good a fit the individual is.

• Division wide

This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the division.

• The average division employee

For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire division are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with focus being how good a fit the individual is.

• Unit wide

This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the unit.

• The average unit employee

For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire unit are used, to create three hypothetical employees. Those are then compared to the applicant, with a focus on how good a fit the individual is.

• The unit manager / Co-worker

This explores the differences in personal style between a manager/co-worker and potential employee. The end result is on how each can maximize productivity and minimize personal friction.

• Composite reports

This explores the difference in personal style between every employee in a group. The idea is for each member of the group to learn not only their own strengths and weakness, but also those of their co-workers, and how they can more harmoniously work together. The resulting reports not only deal with the individual on a one-to-one level within the group, but also each individual as a part of a group of three, four, five, etc people within the group.

The content of these reports can range from a simple perspectrograph, to a four wheel Wittlich Diagram and accompanying twenty five thousand word analysis.

Psychological analysis

These reports can range from a ten item check off list to a 10 000 word report on the makeup of an individual from the perspective of Freudian Psychoanalysis, Transactional analysis, or other personality theory.

A major value of a graphologival analysis lies in the increased understanding of people and the ability consequently to enjoy improved relationships both personally and professionally. It complements psychometric assessment because they each come from different directions according to International Graphology Association.

Marital compatibility

In its simplest form, only sexual expression, and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual. The basic theory is that knowing, and understanding how each other are different, any commitment that is made, will be more enduring.

Medical diagnosis

Medical graphology is probably the most controversial aspect of handwriting analysis. On one end, are research studies in which handwriting is used as one datapoint in making a clinical diagnosis. On the other end of claims made by graphologists, which have neither research, nor theory to support them.

Alfred Kanfer published several papers whose implication was that cancer could be detected using handwriting analysis, prior to the then standard medical tests. Subsequent studies failed to support his findings.

Some doctors have noticed that shrinking handwriting is linked to the onset of Parkinson's disease. The same has been observed for certain other neurological disorders.

Forensic document examination

This discipline is better known as questioned document examination within the judicial system. This is used to determine whether or not a document was written by the person who is thought to have written it. As such, it is not an aspect of graphology.

Goodtitle Drevett v Braham 100 Eng Rep 1139 (1792) is reportedly the first case at which the testimony of a questioned document examiner was accepted.

This is not usually considered to be a branch of graphology.

Graphology in court testimony

'Cameron v Knapp, 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.

Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] probably will be remembered for reasons why no graphologists should be allowed to testify.

Jury screening

A graphologist is given handwriting samples of a prospective jury and determines who should be struck, on the basis of emotional bias, or other reasons. After the trial has begun, the graphologist advises counsel on how to slant their case, for the most favorable response from the jury.